What Makes Sociology Different From Art Music Philosophy and Literature

The sociology of literature is a subfield of the sociology of culture. It studies the social product of literature and its social implications. A notable instance is Pierre Bourdieu's 1992 Les Règles de L'Art: Genèse et Structure du Gnaw Littéraire, translated by Susan Emanuel equally Rules of Art: Genesis and Construction of the Literary Field (1996).

Classical sociology [edit]

None of the 'founding fathers' of sociology produced a detailed written report of literature, simply they did develop ideas that were subsequently applied to literature by others. Karl Marx's theory of ideology has been directed at literature by Pierre Macherey, Terry Eagleton and Fredric Jameson. Max Weber'due south theory of modernity as cultural rationalisation, which he applied to music, was later on practical to all the arts, literature included, past Frankfurt Schoolhouse writers such as Theodor Adorno and Jürgen Habermas. Emile Durkheim's view of sociology as the study of externally defined social facts was redirected towards literature past Robert Escarpit. Bourdieu's work is clearly indebted to Marx, Weber and Durkheim

Lukács and the theory of the novel [edit]

An of import first footstep in the sociology of literature was taken by Georg Lukács'due south The Theory of the Novel, showtime published in German in 1916, in the Zeitschrift fur Aesthetik und Allgemeine Kunstwissenschaft. In 1920 it was republished in book form and this version strongly influenced the Frankfurt Schoolhouse. A second edition, published in 1962, was similarly influential on French structuralism. The Theory of the Novel argued that, whilst the classical epic poem had given class to a totality of life pregiven in reality by the social integration of classical civilisation, the mod novel had get 'the epic of an age in which the extensive totality of life is no longer direct given'.^[ane] The novel form is therefore organised around the problematic hero in pursuit of problematic values within a problematic world.

Lukács'south 2d distinctive contribution to the sociology of literature was The Historical Novel, written in German language but first published in Russian in 1937, which appeared in English translation in 1962. Here, Lukács argued that the early 19th century historical novel'southward key accomplishment was to represent realistically the differences betwixt pre-capitalist past and backer present. This was not a matter of individual talent, but of commonage historical experience, because the French Revolution and the revolutionary and Napoleonic wars had fabricated history for the starting time time a mass experience.^[two] He went on to argue that the success of the 1848 revolutions led to the decline of the historical novel into 'decorative monumentalization' and the 'making individual of history'.^[3] The central figures in the historical novel were thus those of the early 19th century, especially Sir Walter Scott.

Lukács was an of import influence on Lucien Goldmann's Towards a Sociology of the Novel, Alan Swingewood'southward discussion of the sociology of the novel in Function iii of Laurenson and Swingewood's The Sociology of Literature and Franco Moretti'due south Signs Taken for Wonders.

The Frankfurt School [edit]

Founded in 1923, the Institute for Social Research at the University of Frankfurt developed a distinctive kind of 'critical sociology' indebted to Marx, Weber and Freud. Leading Frankfurt School critics who worked on literature included Adorno, Walter Benjamin and Leo Löwenthal. Adorno's Notes to Literature, Benjamin'south The Origin of High german Tragic Drama and Löwentahl's Literature and the Image of Man were each influential studies in the sociology of literature. Löwenthal continued this work at the University of California, Berkeley, during the 1950s.

Adorno's Notes to Literature is a collection of essays, the virtually influential of which is probably 'On Lyric Poesy and Gild'. It argued that poetic thought is a reaction against the commodification and reification of mod life, citing Goethe and Baudelaire every bit examples.^[4] Benjamin's The Origin of German Tragic Drama argued that the farthermost 'sovereign violence' of the 16th and 17th century German 'Trauerspiel' (literally mourning play, less literally tragedy) playwrights expressed the historical realities of princely ability far better than had classical tragedy.

Habermas succeeded Adorno to the Chair of Folklore and Philosophy at Frankfurt. Habermas'south first major work, Strukturwandel der Öffentlichkeit was published in German in 1962, and in English translation as The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere in 1989. It attempted to explain the socio-historical emergence of middle-class public opinion in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Developing a new kind of institutional sociology of literature, it argued that the public sphere had been organised around literary salons in France, learned and literary societies in Frg, and coffee houses in England. These institutions sustained the early novel, newspaper and periodical press.

The sociology of the avant-garde [edit]

Peter Bürger was Professor of French and Comparative Literature at the University of Bremen. His Theorie der Avantgarde was published in German language in 1974 and in English translation in 1984. Like Habermas, Bürger was interested in the institutional sociology of literature and art. He postulated a historical typology of aesthetic social relations, measured forth three main axes, the part of the artwork, its mode of production and its mode of reception.^[5] This gave him iii master kinds of fine art, sacral, ladylike and bourgeois. Bourgeois art, he argued, had every bit its function individual self-agreement and was produced and received individually. Information technology became a celebration in form of the liberation of art from religion, the courtroom and, eventually, even the bourgeoisie. Modernist art was thus an autonomous social 'institution', the preserve of an increasingly autonomous intellectual class. The 'historical avant-garde' of the inter-war years developed as a movement within and against modernism, he concluded, as an ultimately unsuccessful revolt confronting precisely this autonomy.^[6]

Habermas adopts a very similar approach in his own account of the avant-garde.

The sociology of the book merchandise [edit]

Robert Escarpit held the position of Professor of Comparative Literature at the University of Bordeaux and founded the Middle for the Folklore of Literary Facts. His works included The Folklore of Literature, (French: Sociologie de la littérature) published in French in 1958 and in English translation in 1971, and The Book Revolution (French: La Révolution du livre), published in French in 1965 and in English language in 1966. In Durkheimian fashion, Escarpit aimed to business concern himself merely with the externally defined "social facts" of literature, specially those registered in the book merchandise.^[seven] His focus fell on the "community of writers", understood in aggregate equally "generations" and "teams". He extended the definition of literature to include all "non-functional" writing and as well insisted that literary success resulted from "a convergence of intentions between author and reader".^[viii]

Lewis Coser in the U.s.a. and Peter H. Mann in Britain carried out analogously empirical studies of the sociology of the book trade.

Lucien Febvre and Henri-Jean Martin'southward L'Apparition du livre, starting time published in French 1958 and in English language translation as The Coming of the Book in 1976, is - strictly speaking - a work of social history (Febvre was a leading figure in the Annales school of historiography). Simply information technology is deeply sociological in character - Annales history was determinedly social scientific - and provides a systematic account of the long-run development of the European book trade (it covers the menstruation from 1450 to 1800).

Genetic structuralism [edit]

Lucien Goldmann was Manager of Studies at the School for Avant-garde Studies in the Social Sciences in Paris and founding Director of the Centre for the Folklore of Literature at the Free University of Brussels. Like Escarpit, Goldmann was influenced by Durkheim: hence, his definition of the subject thing of sociology equally the 'study of the facts of consciousness'.^[9] Simply he was also interested in developing a sociology of the text. The central task of the literary sociologist, he argued, was to bring out the objective meaning of the literary work past placing information technology in its historical context, studied every bit a whole.

Goldmann defined the creating subject as transindividual, that is, equally an case of Durkheim's 'commonage consciousness'. Following Marx and Lukács, however, Goldmann also assumed that grouping consciousness was normally grade consciousnesses. The mediating agency between a social class and the piece of work of literature and then became the 'globe vision', which binds the individual members of a social class together. Le Dieu caché, his report of Blaise Pascal and Jean Racine, was published in French in 1955 and in English translation as The Hidden God in 1964. Information technology identified 'structural homologies' between the Jansenist 'tragic vision', the textual structures of Pascal's Pensées and Racine's plays, and the social position of the seventeenth-century 'noblesse de robe'. Goldmann'southward structuralism was 'genetic' because it sought to trace the genesis of literary structures in extra-literary phenomena.

In 1964 Goldmann published Cascade une Sociologie du Roman translated past Alan Sheridan as Towards a Sociology of the Novel in 1974. Like Lukács, Goldmann sees the novel as revolving around the problematic hero's search for authentic values in a degraded social club. Simply Goldmann besides postulates a 'rigorous homology' between the literary form of the novel and the economical grade of the commodity. The early novel, he argues, is concerned with private biography and the problematic hero, only, as competitive capitalism evolves into monopoly capitalism, the problematic hero progressively disappears. The period between the Beginning and 2nd World Wars witnesses a temporary experiment with the customs as collective hero: Goldmann's example is André Malraux. But the main line of development is characterised by the endeavour to write the novel of 'the absence of subjects'. Here, Goldmann'south example is the nouveau roman of Alain Robbe-Grillet and Nathalie Sarraute.

Andrew Milner'due south John Milton and the English Revolution (1981) is essentially an awarding of Goldmann's genetic structuralism to the written report of seventeenth-century English literature.

Sociocriticism [edit]

Goldmann's sociology of literature remains significant in itself and as a source of inspiration, both positive and negative, to the kind of 'sociocriticism' developed past Edmond Cros, Pierre Zima and their co-workers in French republic and Canada.

Neo-Marxian ideology critique [edit]

Marx used the term ideology to denote the inner connectedness of culture, including literature, and class.^[x] The philosopher Louis Althusser elaborated on this notion in the early on 1970s, arguing that credo functions then every bit to constitute biological individuals as social 'subjects' by representing their imaginary relation to their real conditions of existence.^[11]

For Althusser himself art was non ideology. Only his theory was applied to literature by Macherey in French republic, Eagleton in Britain and Jameson in the United states. The cardinal novelty of Eagleton's Criticism and Ideology was its argument that literature could be understood as 'producing' ideology, in the sense of performing it.^[12] Jameson's The Political Unconscious argued that literary analysis can be focussed on three distinct levels, 'text', 'ideologeme' and 'credo of form', each of which has its socio-historical corollary, in the equivalent 'semantic horizon' of political history, social club and mode of production.^[thirteen] The version of credo Jameson applies to all three levels is essentially Althusserian. The novelty of his position, however, was to argue for a 'double hermeneutic' simultaneously concerned with ideology and utopia.

Macherey, Eagleton and Jameson were literary critics by profession, but their applications of credo-critique to literature are sociological in grapheme, insofar as they seek to explain literary phenomena in extra-literary terms.

Bourdieu [edit]

Bourdieu was Professor of Folklore at the Collège de France and Director of the Centre de Sociologie Européenne. His first major contribution to the sociology of literature (and other arts) was La Distinction, published in French in 1979 and in English translation in 1984. It is based on detailed sociological surveys and ethnographic observation of the social distribution of cultural preferences. Bourdieu identified iii master zones of taste, 'legitimate', 'heart-brow' and 'pop', which he found to be ascendant respectively in the educated sections of the dominant class, the heart classes and the working classes. He described legitimate taste as centred on an 'aesthetic disposition' to assert the primacy of grade over role. The 'pop artful', by dissimilarity, is based on continuity between art and life and 'a deep-rooted demand for participation'.^[14] Hence, its hostility to representations of objects that in real life are either ugly or immoral. Creative and social 'stardom' are inextricably interrelated, he concluded, because the 'pure gaze' implies a break with ordinary attitudes towards the earth and, equally such, is a 'social suspension'.^[15]

The Rules of Art is more specifically focussed on literature, specially the significance of Gustave Flaubert for the making of modern French literature. Bourdieu postulated a model of 'the field of cultural production' as structured externally in relation to the 'field of power' and internally in relation to two 'principles of hierarchization', the heteronomous and the autonomous. The modern literary and artistic field is a site of contestation betwixt the heteronomous principle, subordinating art to economy, and the autonomous, resisting such subordination. In Bourdieu'southward map of the French literary field in the belatedly nineteenth century, the most autonomous genre, that is, the least economically profitable - poetry - is to the left, whilst the most heteronomous, the about economically assisting - drama - is to the right, with the novel located somewhere in between. Additionally, higher social status audiences govern the upper terminate of the field and lower status audiences the lower end.^[16] Flaubert'southward distinctive achievement in L'Éducation sentimentale was, in Bourdieu'due south account, to have understood and defined the rules of modern democratic art.

The rise of the novel [edit]

1 of the earliest English-language contributions to the sociology of literature is The Rise of the Novel (1957) by Ian Watt, Professor of English at Stanford University. For Watt, the novel'south 'novelty' was its 'formal realism', the idea 'that the novel is a total and accurate written report of man experience'.^[17] His paradigmatic instances are Daniel Defoe, Samuel Richardson and Henry Fielding. Watt argued that the novel's business organisation with realistically described relations between ordinary individuals, ran parallel to the more general development of philosophical realism, middle-class economic individualism and Puritan individualism. He also argued that the form addressed the interests and capacities of the new eye-class reading public and the new book trade evolving in response to them. As tradesmen themselves, Defoe and Richardson had only to 'consult their own standards' to know that their piece of work would appeal to a large audition.^[18]

Cultural materialism [edit]

Raymond Williams was Professor of Drama at Cambridge Academy and one of the founders of contemporary cultural studies. He described his own distinctive approach as a 'cultural materialism', by which he meant a theory of civilisation 'as a (social and material) productive process' and of the arts 'equally social uses of material means of production'.^[xix] This is a clearly sociological, every bit distinct from literary-critical, perspective: hence, its most general exposition in the United states as The Sociology of Culture and in Britain every bit Culture, a 1981 championship in Fontana'southward New Sociology series. Although Williams'southward interests ranged widely across the whole field of literary and cultural studies, his major work was concentrated on literature and drama. He was thus a sociologist of culture, specialising in the sociology of literature.

In The Long Revolution (1961), Williams developed pioneering accounts of the folklore of the book trade, the sociology of authorship and the folklore of the novel. In The English Novel from Dickens to Lawrence (1970), he argued that the modern novel articulated a distinctively modern 'structure of feeling', the key trouble of which was the 'knowable community'.^[twenty] In The Country and the City (1973) he developed a social history of English country-house poetry, aimed at demystifying the idealisations of rural life contained in the literature: 'It is what the poems are: not country life but social compliment; the familiar hyperboles of the elite and its attendants'.^[21] His Marxism and Literature (1977) - simultaneously a critique of both Marxism and 'Literature' - is an extensive formal elaboration of Williams's own theoretical system.

Alan Sinfield's Faultlines: Cultural Materialism and the Politics of Dissident Reading (1992) and Literature, Politics and Culture in Postwar Britain (1997) are both clearly indebted to Williams. So, as well, is Andrew Milner'southward Literature, Civilisation and Society (2005).

World-systems theory [edit]

Franco Moretti was, past plough, Professor of English Literature at the University of Salerno, of Comparative Literature at Verona University and of English and Comparative Literature at Stanford University. His first volume, Signs Taken for Wonders (1983) was subtitled Essays in the Folklore of Literary Forms and was essentially qualitative in method. His subsequently work, still, became progressively more quantitative.

Applying Immanuel Wallerstein's earth-systems theory to literature, Moretti argued, in Atlas of the European Novel (1998), that the nineteenth-century literary economic system had comprised 'iii Europes', with France and Great britain at the core, most countries in the periphery and a variable semiperiphery located in between. Measured by the volume of translations in national bibliographies, he establish that French novelists were more successful in the Catholic Due south and British in the Protestant Northward, but that the whole continent yet read the leading figures from both.^[22] London and Paris 'rule the unabridged continent for over a century', he ended, publishing half or more of all European novels.^[23]

Moretti's theses prompted much subsequent controversy, collected together in Christopher Prendergast'southward edited collection Debating Earth Literature (2004). Moretti himself expanded on the argument in his Distant Reading (2013).

Recent developments [edit]

Building on before work in the product of culture, reception aesthetics and cultural capital, the sociology of literature has recently concentrated on readers' structure of meaning. New developments include studying the relationship between literature and grouping identities; concerning institutional and reader-response analysis; reintroducing the role of intentions of the author in literature; reconsidering the role of ethics and morality in literature ^[24] and developing a clearer understanding of how literature is and is non similar other media.^[25]

The sociology of literature has besides recently taken an interest in the global inequality between First-Globe and Third-World authors, where the latter tend to exist strongly dependent on the editorial decisions of publishers in Paris, London or New York and are often excluded from participation in the global literary market place.^[26]

The journal New Literary History devoted a special issue to new approaches to the folklore of literature in Spring 2010.

Notes [edit]

1. ^ Lukács, 1000. (1971). The Theory of the Novel: A Historico-Philosophical Essay of the Forms of Great Ballsy Literature, trans. A. Bostock, London: Merlin Press, p. 56.
2. ^ Lukács, G. (1962). The Historical Novel, trans. H. and Due south. Mitchell, London: Merlin Press, p. xx.
3. ^ Lukács, G. (1962). The Historical Novel, trans. H. and S. Mitchell, London: Merlin Press, p. 237.
4. ^ Adorno, T.W. (1991). Notes to Literature, Vol. 1, trans. S.W. Nicholson, New York: Columbia University Press, pp. 37-54.
5. ^ Bürger, P. (1984). Theory of the Avant-garde, trans. 1000. Shaw, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, pp. 48-49.
6. ^ Bürger, P. (1984). Theory of the Avant-Garde, trans. M. Shaw, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Printing, p. 22.
7. ^ Escarpit, R. (1971). The Sociology of Literature, trans. Eastward. Option, London: Cass, p. 18.
8. ^ Escarpit, R. (1971). The Sociology of Literature, trans. East. Pick, London: Cass, p. 83.
9. ^ Goldmann, L. (1970). The Man Sciences and Philosophy, trans. H.Five. White and R. Ballast, London: Jonathan Greatcoat, p.36.
10. ^ Marx, Yard. and F. Engels (1970). The German language Credo, Office i, trans. W. Lough, C. dutt and C.P. Magill, London: Lawrence and Wishart, p. 64.
11. ^ Althusser, L. (1971). 'Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses: Notes Towards and Investigation' in Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays, trans. B. Brewster, London: New Left Books.
12. ^ Eagleton, T. (1976). Criticism and Ideology, London: New Left Books, pp. 64-nine.
13. ^ Jameson, F. (1981), The Political Unconscious: Narrative as a Socially Symbolic Human activity, London: Methuen, pp. 75-76.
14. ^ Bourdieu, P. (1984). Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Sense of taste, trans. R. Nice, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, p. 32.
15. ^ Bourdieu, P. (1984). Stardom: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste, trans. R. Nice, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, p. 31.
16. ^ Bourdieu, P. (1996). The Rules of Art: Genesis and Structure of the Literary Field, trans. S. Emanuel, Cambridge: Polity Press, p. 122.
17. ^ Watt, I. (1963). The Rise of the Novel: Studies in Defoe, Richardson and Fielding, Harmondsworth: Penguin, p. 32.
18. ^ Watt, I. (1963). The Rise of the Novel: Studies in Defoe, Richardson and Fielding, Harmondsworth: Penguin, p. 61.
19. ^ Williams, R. (1980). Issues in Materialism and Culture: Selected Essays, London: Verso, p. 243.
20. ^ Williams, R. (1974). The English Novel from Dickens to Lawrence, London: Chatto and Windus, pp. xiv-xv.
21. ^ Williams, R. (1973). The Country and the City, New York: Oxford University Printing, p. 33.
22. ^ Moretti, F. (1998). Atlas of the European Novel 1800–1900, London: Verso, pp. 174, 178-179.
23. ^ Moretti, F. (1998). Atlas of the European Novel 1800–1900, London: Verso, p. 186.
24. ^ Dromi, Southward. M.; Illouz, E. "Recovering Morality: Pragmatic Sociology and Literary Studies". New Literary History. 42 (2): 351–369. doi:10.1353/nlh.2010.0004. Retrieved 2011-03-09 .
25. ^ Griswold, Due west. "Recent Moves in the Sociology of Literature". Annual Review of Sociology. 19: 455–467. doi:x.1146/annurev.then.xix.080193.002323.
26. ^ Casanova, Pascale (2004). The Globe Republic of Letters . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Printing.

References [edit]

• Theodor W. Adorno, (1991) Notes to Literature, Vol. 1, trans. Shierry Weber Nicholson, ed. Rolf Tiedemann, New York: Columbia Academy Press.
• Theodor W. Adorno, (1992) Notes to Literature, Vol. 2, trans. Shierry Weber Nicholson, ed. Rolf Tiedemann, New York: Columbia University Press.
• Walter Benjamin, (1977) The Origin of German language Tragic Drama, trans. John Osborne, London: New Left Books.
• Carlo Bordoni, (1974) Introduzione alla sociologia della letteratura, Pisa: Pacini.
• Pierre Bourdieu, (1984) Distinction: A Social Critique of the Sentence of Taste, trans. Richard Prissy, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
• Pierre Bourdieu, (1996b) The Rules of Fine art: Genesis and Structure of the Literary Field, trans. Susan Emanuel, Cambridge: Polity Printing.
• Elizabeth and Tom Burns eds, (1973) Folklore of Literature and Drama, Harmondsworth: Penguin.
• Peter Bürger, (1984) Theory of the Avant-Garde, trans. Michael Shaw, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Printing.
• Pascale Casanova, (2005) The World Republic of Letters, trans. Chiliad.B. Debevois, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
• Lewis A. Coser, Charles Kadushin and Walter W. Powell, (1985) Books: The Culture and Commerce of Publishing, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
• Edmond Cros, (1988) Theory and Practice of Sociocriticism, trans. J. Schwartz, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Printing.
• Terry Eagleton, (1976) Criticism and Ideology, London: New Left Books.
• Robert Escarpit,(1966) The Volume Revolution, London: George Harrap.
• Robert Escarpit, (1971) The Folklore of Literature, trans. E. Option, London: Cass.
• Lucien Febvre and Henri-Jean Martin,(1976) The Coming of the Book: The Impact of Printing 1450–1800, trans. David Gerard, ed. Geoffrey Nowell-Smith and David Wootton, London: New Left Books.
• Lucien Goldmann, (1964) The Hidden God: A Written report of Tragic Vision in the 'Pensées' of Pascal and the Tragedies of Racine, trans. Philip Thody, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
• Lucien Goldmann, (1975) Towards a Sociology of the Novel, trans. Alan Sheridan, London: Tavistock.
• Jürgen Habermas, (1989) The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society, trans. T. Burger, Cambridge: Polity Press.
• John A. Hall, (1979), The Sociology of Literature, London: Longman.
• Fredric Jameson, (1981) The Political Unconscious: Narrative equally a Socially Symbolic Act, London: Methuen.
• Diana T. Laurenson and Alan Swingewood, The Sociology of Literature, London: McGibbon and Kee.
• Leo Löwenthal, (1986) Literature and the Image of Man, New Jersey: Transaction Publishers.
• Leo Löwenthal, (2009) A margine. Teoria critica east sociologia della letteratura, a cura di C. Bordoni, Chieti: Solfanelli.
• Georg Lukács, (1962) The Historical Novel, trans. Hannah and Stanley Mitchell, London: Merlin Press.
• Georg Lukács, (1971) The Theory of the Novel: A Historico-Philosophical Essay on the Forms of Great Epic Literature, trans. A. Bostock, London: Merlin Press.
• Pierre Macherey, (1978) A Theory of Literary Product, trans. G. Wall, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
• Peter H. Mann, (1982) From Author to Reader: A Social Study of Books, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
• Andrew Milner, (1981) John Milton and the English Revolution: A Study in the Folklore of Literature, London: Macmillan.
• Andrew Milner, (2005) Literature, Civilization and Society, 2d edition, London and New York: Routledge.
• Franco Moretti, (1988) Signs Taken For Wonders: Essays in the Sociology of Literary Forms, 2d edition, trans. Susan Fischer, David Forgacs and David Miller, London: Verso.
• Franco Moretti, (1998) Atlas of the European Novel 1800–1900, London: Verso.
• Franco Moretti, (2013) Distant Reading, London: Verso.
• Christopher Prendergast, ed., (2004) Debating World Literature, London: Verso.
• Jane Routh and Janet Wolff eds, (1977) The Folklore of Literature: Theoretical Approaches, Keele: Sociological Review Monographs.
• Alan Sinfield, (1992) Faultlines: Cultural Materialism and the Politics of Dissident Reading, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Alan Sinfield, (1997) Literature, Politics and Culture in Postwar United kingdom, second edition, London: Athlone Press.
• Socius, Ressources sur le littéraire et le social.
• Diana Spearman, (1966) The Novel and Society, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
• Ian Watt, (1963) The Rise of the Novel: Studies in Defoe, Richardson and Fielding, Harmondsworth: Penguin.
• Raymond Williams, (1961) The Long Revolution, London: Chatto and Windus.
• Raymond Williams, (1970) The English Novel from Dickens to Lawrence, London: Chatto and Windus.
• Raymond Williams, (1973) The State and the City, New York: Oxford University Printing.
• Raymond Williams, (1977) Marxism and Literature, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Raymond Williams, (1981) Civilisation, Glasgow: Fontana.
• Pierre Five. Zima, (2000) Manuel de sociocritique, Paris et Montréal: l'Harmattan.

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology_of_literature